Food Fraud and “Economically Motivated Adulteration” of Food and Food Ingredients
Congressional Research Service 4
Leading Food Categories with Reported Cases o
Food Fraud
Olive Oil. Olive oil is often substituted with a lower cost alternative, whether it is regular olive oil instead of higher-
priced extra virgin olive oil or a less expensive variety from Greece or Turkey, instead of from Italy as the label
claims. In such cases the fraud was associated with efforts to defraud the European Union’s farm support program,
which subsidizes olive oil, as part of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). In some cases an alternate seed or nut oil
may be sold as or thinned out with hazelnut, soybean, corn, peanut, sunflower, safflower, walnut, vegetable, canola, or
palm oil, and in one case, lard. Some combinations contained no olive oil. The use of nut or legume oils could pose a
problem for those with certain food allergies. In rare cases, non-food-grade oil may be added, such as rapeseed.
Fish and Seafood. Some higher-value fish and seafood are replaced with cheaper, more abundant fish. A report by
Oceana found that fish samples purchased at grocery stores, restaurants, and sushi bars in major cities were often
mislabeled, including red snapper (actually tilefish); white tuna and butterfish (actually escolar); wild Alaskan salmon
(actually farmed Atlantic salmon); caviar (actually catfish roe); and monkfish (puffer fish). Other types of substitutions
have involved halibut, sole, grouper, and striped bass. Some substitutions have involved fish or seafood associated with
certain types of fish poisoning or allergens. Other substitutions are intended to evade import and other restrictions.
Milk and Milk-based Products. Milk from bovine cows has had milk from other types of animals, such as sheep,
buffalo, and goats-antelopes, added to it, but also adulterated with reconstituted milk powder, urea, and rennet,
among other products (oil, detergent, caustic soda, sugar, salt, and skim milk powder). Adulterated milk may also be
watered down and then supplemented with melamine to artificially raise the apparent protein content and hide
dilution. Melamine, an organic base chemical, is widely used in plastics, adhesives, and other consumer products, and is
known to pose a public health threat. Adulterated milk might also be added into infant formula and other milk-based
products. Baby formula is a common target for retail theft, often by tampering with the sell-by codes to move expired
product.
Honey, Maple Syrup, and Other Natural Sweeteners. Honey might have added sugar syrup, corn syrup,
fructose, glucose, high-fructose corn syrup, and beet sugar, without being disclosed on the label. Honey from a “non-
authentic geographic origin” is also common, such as cases where honey from China is transshipped through another
Asian country and falsely sold as honey from the second country—usually to avoid higher customs duties and tariffs
that would be imposed on honey from China. Some of this honey might also contain unapproved antibiotics or other
additives and heavy metals. Maple syrup is sometimes thinned out with sugar or corn syrup.
Fruit Juice. Juices might be watered down, or a more expensive juice (such as from pomegranates or other “super”
fruit) might be cut with a cheaper juice (such as apple or grape juice). Some juice may be only water, dye, and sugary
flavorings, although fruit is the listed ingredient on the label. Orange juice has been shown to sometimes contain
added unlisted lemon juice, mandarin juice, grapefruit juice, high fructose corn syrup, paprika extract, and beet sugar.
Apple juice has been shown to have added unlisted grape juice, high fructose corn syrup, pear juice, pineapple juice,
raisin sweetener, fig juice, fructose, and malic acid.
Coffee and Tea. Ground coffee might be cut with leaves and twigs, as well as roasted corn, ground roasted barley,
and roasted ground parchment. Instant coffee may include chicory, cereals, caramel, more parchment, starch, malt,
and figs. Tea may contain leaves from other plants, color additives, and colored saw dust.
Spices. Saffron is the world’s most expensive spice, and has been found to have added glycerin, sandalwood dust,
tartrazine (a yellow dye), barium sulfate, and borax. Ground black pepper has been shown to have added starch,
papaya seeds, buckwheat, flour, twigs, and millet. Vanilla extract, turmeric, star anise, paprika, and chili powder are
other spices prone to fraud. Sudan red dyes have been used to color paprika, chili powders, and curries, but are also
known carcinogens and are banned for use in foods.
Organic Foods and Products. Using fraudulent certification to market, label, or sell non-organic (conventionally
produced) agricultural products as USDA-certified “organic” is a violation of U.S. law and federal National Organic
Program (NOP) regulations. Products fraudulently labeled as “organic” have been detected by USDA for a range of
foods and food ingredients from both domestic and international suppliers.
Clouding agents. “Clouding agents” or food processing aids “to enhance the appeal or utility of a food or food
component,” such as palm oil and other allowed food ingredients, are often used in fruit juices, jams, and other foods.
Of particular concern is the fraudulent replacement or addition of the plasticizer Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP)
and other related phthalates, as a substitute for other ingredients. DEHP may also be used in food contact materials,
such as seals and packaging. DEHP is associated with public health risks, including cancer and reproductive concerns.
Source: CRS compilation from information reported by USP, Michigan State University, NCFPD and researchers at
the University of Minnesota, Oceana, Consumers Union, Food Chemical News, and the Rodale Institute. Unless
otherwise indicated, “adulteration” and “misbranding” of foods is prohibited under various FDA and USDA laws.